Major turning point occurred in 1517 when Martin Luther published the Ninety-Five Theses, prompting widespread calls for reform.
- Early precursors: Figures such as John Wycliffe and Jan Hus challenged church practices in the 14th and 15th centuries, creating earlier dissent.
- Key reform milestones: 1517 Luther’s theses; 1521 Diet of Worms where reformers were condemned; 1534 Act of Supremacy established a separate Church of England under royal authority.
- Catholic response: The Council of Trent from 1545 to 1563 clarified Catholic doctrine and enacted internal reforms as part of the Counter-Reformation.
- Legal and political settlement: The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 and the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 institutionalized confessional divisions across much of Europe, making the split effectively permanent in political terms.
- Theological divide: Protestant emphases on sola fide and sola scriptura contrasted with Catholic affirmation of papal authority and seven sacraments, producing enduring doctrinal separation.
